Book Review: Aristotle's Masterpiece

Aristotle's Masterpiece, a manual of sex and pregnancy, is said to be published by about 1680. It is not, of course, the work of the ancient Greek philosopher, but its true authorship is not clearly known, the name William Salmon being one suggested. The book has had a long but mostly clandestine career as a quasipornographic book, being banned for many years.
The book begins with an observation that things are slighted only because they are common, though in themselves worthy of the most serious consideration, like the power of Nature, by whichchildren are formed. 

In the first part, the book describes the parts or organs of generation in man, and afterwards in woman; and then the use of these parts. It then discusses the restrictions like the institution of marriage, and mentions the advantage it brings to mankind. 

The second part deals with matters relating to the propagation of mankind to the world. Like, what conception is, what are the pre-requisites, how a woman ought to confront this and her delivery, what all needs to be cared and attended to,and how to confront barrennes.
While describing the man's organs, the book talks about stones, or testicles, so called, because they testify the person to be a man. After a brief description of anatomy of both the man and woman, it mentions 'women are but men turn'd outside in', and men are 'women with their inside out.'
The book then goes int explaining the 'use of those parts in the work of generation, which will excellently inform us that Nature has made nothing in vain'.
The book also contain a good collection of questions with unique answers, like, 

Why is the head of beasts hairy?
(ans: hairs are the ornament of the head and of the brain),

Why doth the nose stand out farther than other parts of the body?
(ans: because the nose is the beauty of the face, and therefore it doth show itself, and shine) or 

WHY hath the mouth lips to compass it? (ans: a man should not be too hasty of speech.)
Lastly, the book has a discussion about physiognomy, the science of natural inclination and disposition of all forms of life. Thus have the seven planets divided the face among them, but not with so absolute a sway, but that the twelve signs of the Zodiac do also come in for a part: the sign of Cancer presides in the uppermost part of the forehead, and Leo attends upon the right eyebrow, as Sagittarius does upon the right eye and Libra upon the right ear; upon the left eye and eyebrow you will find Aquarius and Gemini, and Aries taking care of the left ear; Taurus rules in the middle of the forehead, and Capricorn the chin: Scorpio takes upon him the protection of the nose; Virgo claims precedence of the right cheek.
Though the old fashioned prose contained in this book make the task of understanding the contents, quite a challenge, I could gather a good idea of yesterdays attitude to sex-related issues.

Book Review: SEVEN BRIEF LESSONS ON PHYSICS

SEVEN BRIEF LESSONS ON PHYSICS by Carlo Rovelli
The beginning of this book attracted me, which said, "These lessons were written for those who know little or nothing about modern science, but they provide a rapid overview of the most fascinating aspects of the great revolution in physics."
The first lesson is dedicated to Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity, ‘the most beautiful of theories’. After an insight into this theory, which describes a colourful and amazing world where universes explode, space collapses into bottomless holes, time sags and slows near a planet, the next lesson takes us to an interesting discourse on quantum mechanics. How Einstein recommended Heisenberg for nobel prize on account of the studies in uncertainity, and how he found the lack of certainity unnerving!
The next lesson is about the architecture of cosmos. It surveys how, beginning with Anaximander, Pythagorus etc., we reached the plan formulated by Copernicus. How our observations are constantly updating our ideas about the universe.
The fourth lesson is about particles. How the elementary particles proton and neutron are composed of even smaller particles called quarks, and how, the quarks are joined together by another set of particles called gluons.
The next lesson introduces to us, a paradox. That is, if we are to learn general relativity in the mornings where we consider space as curved and without breaks, and listen to quantum mechanics in the afternoons where space is flat and energy leaps in quanta, the paradox will be that both the thories are correct.
The book concludes by observing that there is room for a new thory. which could emerge to bring together quantum mechanics and relativity, just as the theory of relativity emerged to resolve the conflict between electromagnetism and mechanics.

Book Review: THE INTERPRETATION OF CULTURES - SELECTED ESSAYS

'THE INTERPRETATION OF CULTURES - SELECTED ESSAYS' by Clifford Geertz begins with a declaration, this is not a "General  Theory of  Cultural Interpretation." It is however, as the author mentions in preface, a view of what culture is, what  role it plays in social  life, and how it ought properly to be studied.
The first chapter discusses different thories of culture, like Susanne Langer and 'certain  ideas' that 'burst upon the intellectual landscape with  a tremendous force.  They resolve so  many fundamental problems at  once  that they seem also  to  promise that they will resolve all fundamental problems, clarify  all obscure issues. Everyone snaps them up as  the open sesame of some new positive  science, the conceptual center-point around which a  comprehensive system of analysis can  be built.' Or the view that 'man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun' and takes 'culture to  be those webs'. Therafter the book discusses in various essays like the 'Impact of the Concept of Culture on the Concept of Man', the 'Growth of Culture and the Evolution of Mind' and 'Religion As a Cultural System', manifestation of particularities of humans, the sum total of which is what we call culture.
Discussions in this book on all the above topics are quite extensive and garnished abundantly with factual tit bits from a wide variety of communities from all continents. But I notice one thing missing. No logical arguement is given for the necessity of culture. Why should man have a culture? What metabolic need is satisfied here?
(In fact in attempting to answer such questions only I fell upon my theories explained in my book, The Unsure male.)

Book Review: From Newton to Einstein

‘From Newton to Einstein’ by Benjamin Harrow, PhD, begins with as an assertion, ‘Before Newton the Solar System was without form, and void; then Newton came and there was light. To have discovered a law not only applicable to matter on this earth, but to the planets and sun and stars beyond, is a triumph which places Newton among the super-men’.

After giving a brief but illuminating background about the contribution by early heroes of independent thought like, Galileo, Kepler, Copernicus, Tyco Brahe, the book opens to us the world of Newton. That too, in completely nonmathematical terms, which in itself is a great feat.  Introducing Newton’s ideas in clear terms, further questions are answered, like, why the moon does not fall to the earth is on account of its motion, why ebb and flow of the tides behave the way it is, and other contemporary issues like ether and, propagation of light.

It then goes on to describe how, experiments on the discharge of electricity through gases, by physicists like, Crookes, Rutherford, Lonard, Roentgen, Becquerel, and, above all, J. J. Thomson, which pointed very clearly to the fact that the atoms are not the smallest particles of matter at all, paved way for Einstein.  Einstein’s contributions are discussed. How while day-dreaming at his patent office desk, he saw a builder on the rooftop opposite his window which led him to imagine the man falling off the roof and whether the fall would lead to feeling of weightlessness. If Newton was said to be triggered by a falling apple, for Einstein, there is a falling man.

‘Einstein’s great achievement’, the book says, ‘consists in applying this revised conception of space and time to elucidate cosmic problems’. ‘Gravitation itself— more universal than anything else in the universe— may be interpreted in terms of strains on world-lines, or, what amounts to the same thing, strains of space-time combinations.’

This book gives a good description of scientific thinking from Newton to Einstein, with copious references to all thinkers, whose contributions are of significance.

Cycle of Life!

Good rationale for evolution!

A Useful Site

 The Council of Better Business Bureaus is the umbrella organization for the local, independent BBBs in the United States, Canada and Mexico, as well as home to its national and international programs on dispute resolution, advertising review, and industry self-regulation. The website www.bbb.org is well equipped with latest information on 'scams' (BBB scam alerts), one should be wary about.
It also offers a facility to check whatever one wish to, comparing with their scam database, which I found running into 13 pages of scams @ 9 scams per page!

Book Review: 7 Steps to Health and the Big Diabetes Lie

'7 Steps to Health and the Big Diabetes Lie' (preview) By: Max Sidorov
In cooperation with the doctors at the ICTM (That oddly-named website refers to “The International Council for Truth in Medicine”, which appears to be an online nutrition blog, www.theictm.org)

The book opens in a rather combative way, accusing the 'established health industry' of suppressing free flow of information. As it is very difficult for anyone to even mention the word “cure” next to a disease or illness without the approval of the reigning medical establishment, "This book is not in any way offered as prescription, diagnosis nor treatment for any disease, illness, infirmity or physical condition". And also a 'statutory warning' that they are not liable to any person or individual for any loss or damage, which I think makes contents of this book look risky.

The book begins with an introduction that stresses the need for nutrition education for all medical professionals, while describing how unsuitable to good health, is the present treatment of various conditions like heart trouble. The book is replete with comments that put down the medical profession, such as, "Medical doctors are not trained in nutrition; they are trained in drugs, drugs, and more drugs.", or, "Asking a doctor about nutrition is like asking a train conductor about brick laying."
The last 10% of the book proposes a 30 day diabetes plan, a rather general overview of recommended dietary regime, which must be followed exactly "as written if you want to get rid of your diabetes" . Here the book specifies the type of food to have, and the types to avoid.

I found this book an abstract discussion about the, so called ineffective approach of modern medicine to health. Every oppotunity to belittle established drug industry is used to its hilt. It is impossible to test the efficacy of the recommended diet, as it is more of general directives and opinions, like, "If you don't do...... diabetes will not be cured".

Recurring Doubts

Here are the distinctive features of both the material and the spiritual aspects of our life.

As far as the material world go, what is governing us is our predilection to things like sound logic, strong reason and common good. Not only that we are happy to question material matters, but also help and encourage others to do so. As a result, those progressive, flourish.

But, when it comes to the spiritual world, the aim is to prevent at any cost, changes to our ancient notions. Also, notwithstanding our objections, if a few continue with their attempts, they are sure to face the society’s wrath. That too, of a scale much beyond what is given to the most horrendous crimes. And I think we consider it more or less normal, if that exposes them to large scale violence and death, in addition to public display of anger and hatred. In short, in the spiritual world, those progressive, suffer.

Why should it happen this way? Are we deriving something totally different, from each? Published ‘hubs’ on these.

http://hubpages.com/politics/spiritual-and-material

http://hubpages.com/education/spiritualandmaterial

http://hubpages.com/education/spiritualandmaterial-tolearn

What makes us Uneasy?

Think of a frog in a well.

Like the frog, we humans are also in a well. But unlike the frog, we are actually in two wells.

One well, of course is our mind, which effectively is our life. We cannot know what we are, that is, what our mind is, unless we visualize ourselves through something other than our mind.

The other one is our universe. We are inside our universe. What we perceive about it can at best be like the frog’s appreciation of its abode, the well.

Published a hub about this http://hubpages.com/politics/Why-are-our-societies-turbulent

Book Review: Cultural Suppression of Female Sexuality

‘Cultural Suppression of Female Sexuality’ by Roy F. Baumeister and Jean M. Twenge is a holistic look at our society's suppression of female sexuality.

The author begins with an overview of the suppression of female sexuality as a pattern of cultural influence by which girls and women are induced to avoid feeling sexual desire and to refrain from sexual-suggestive behavior. At the outset, the author examines the two main theories based on which gender is mainly responsible for the alleged suppression of female sexuality. The first suppression theory puts men as seeking to suppress female sexuality. The second theory, the female control theory, holds that the women, rather than the men, cooperate to stifle female.

The book then considers the null hypothesis that there was no suppression of female sexuality. But the appearance of lesser sexual inclinations among women (as compared with men), which is beyond dispute, is explained as a consequence of social forces. Another hypothesis is that women exert self-control over their sexuality because of the costs and dangers of sex. It seems indisputable that these costs and dangers have always fallen disproportionately on women. Other measures that seek to curtail female sexuality are then examined, like surgical interventions, such as cutting off the clitoris (subincision).

Prostitution and pornography are examined in the light of above theories. Male control theory fails here, as, if men want to suppress female sexuality in general, men would oppose prostitution and pornography. The female control theory meets a similar fate, as, all over human society, women seem consistently more opposed than men to prostitution and pornography.

Author’s main argument, that women would be the main proximal influences in restraining female sexuality, is therefore shown with great credence. The exchange theory is presented by the author as a good reason for women to suppress female sexuality, because, restricting the supply of sex will raise the price (in terms of commitment, attention, and other resources) that women can get for their sexual favors.

This is a short, but thorough study. Though I am not at all in agreement with the author, I would say he has covered the topic quite extensively, except for my comments below.

I think the most significant question in this regard was not asked by the author. ‘Who is the beneficiary?’ ‘In whose interest is this to continue?’ It should be mere common sense.

In whose interest can be, the removal of portions of female anatomy that can sense sexual gratification? Naturally, the beneficiary shall be the one who has to work hard to provide her gratification.

Who will benefit from a suppressed female? Naturally, the one who expects oppression.

Who will expect oppression? In all forms of life, the male is treated harshly by the female immediately on culmination of mating. Perhaps human ancestors too faced it and started suppressing females.

Food for Thought!

	Just to test my theory, which says that man is more interested in searching for the irrational than following the rational, I collated the history of abstract thought. As expected, what is still going strong is the most irrational of all - theism.   absolutism  Doctrine of government by a single absolute ruler; autocracy  Can be i) Enlightened absolutism, also known as enlightened despotism and benevolent absolutism, is a form of absolute monarchy or despotism inspired by the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs embrace rationality. Most enlightened monarchs fostered education and allowed religious tolerance, freedom of speech, and the right to hold private property, ii) Moral absolutism, That there is at least one principle that ought never to be violated, or iii) Political absolutism, where, supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control.    absurdism
	Doctrine that we live in an irrational universe. It holds that humans historically attempt to find meaning in their lives. Traditionally, this search results in one of two conclusions: either that life is meaningless, or life contains within it a purpose set forth by a higher power—a belief in God, or adherence to some religion or other abstract concept. 19th century Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard as well as Albert Camus are its leading lights.    academicism
	Doctrine that nothing can be known. Refers to the doctrines of Plato's academy; specifically the skeptical doctrines of the later academy stating that nothing can be known. Can also refer to a style of painting popular in early 19th century.     accidentalism
	Theory that events do not have causes. It can be seen as providing room for the unexpected to occur, and for persons to be involved in events that appear to be out of the ordinary scope of understanding. It says that not every event or idea is the result of a direct cause. This means that events may take place haphazardly or simply by chance.      acosmism
	Disbelief in existence of eternal universe distinct from God. It is the belief that the universe and materiality are all illusion.  It maintains that God is the ultimate reality and all things that exist do so as an illusion to people. The one reality that exists is God, but God is defined not as a personal being. Western philosophers like Parmenides, Plato, Spinoza, Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer and many schools of thought of Eastern origin that talks about ‘Maya’, relate to this.    adamitism
	Nakedness for religious reasons. Perhaps refer to an old sect, dating probably from the 2nd century, professed to have regained Adam's primeval innocence. Certain Hindu and one sect of Jain monks follow this.     adevism
	Denial of gods of mythology and legend. Is a term introduced by Friedrich Max Müller to imply the denial of gods, in particular, the legendary gods of Hinduism.     adiaphorism
	Doctrine of theological indifference or latitudinarianism. That, things are morally acceptable or unacceptable by God based upon the motive and end of the doer. In this sense there are no indifferent things.     adoptionism
	Belief that Christ was the adopted and not natural son of God. A belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine—adopted as God's son—later in his life.     aestheticism
	Doctrine that beauty is central to other moral principles. An intellectual and art movement supporting the emphasis of aesthetic values more than social-political themes for literature, fine art, music and other arts. Art for art’s sake.     agapism
	Ethics of love. A more general and equal division of the wealth of the country", as "the voluntary sharing of individual possessions with the less fortunate or successful members of the community" and as the alternative to communism.     agathism
	Belief in ultimate triumph of good despite evil means. An agathist accepts that evil and misfortune will happen, but that the eventual outcome leads towards the good.    agnosticism
	Doctrine that we can know nothing beyond material phenomena. The view that the truth values of certain claims – especially metaphysical and religious claims such as whether God, the divine, or the supernatural exist – are unknown and perhaps unknowable.    anarchism
	Doctrine that all governments should be abolished. Though it is as old as 6th century BC, modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.    animism
	Attribution of soul to inanimate objects. It is the worldview that non-human entities—such as animals, plants, and inanimate objects—possess a spiritual essence.    annihilationism
	Doctrine that the wicked are utterly destroyed after death. That is, at the Last Judgment, those not receiving salvation are destined for total destruction, not everlasting torment.     anthropomorphism
	Attribution of human qualities to non-human things
	anthropotheism Belief that gods are only deified men.     antilapsarianism
	Denial of doctrine of the fall of humanity.    antinomianism
	Doctrine of the rejection of moral law One who takes the principle of salvation by faith and divine grace to the point of asserting that the saved are not bound to follow the Law of Moses    antipedobaptism
	Denial of validity of infant baptism     apocalypticism
	Doctrine of the imminent end of the world. Usually refers to the belief that the world will come to an end very soon, even within one's own lifetime.    asceticism
	Doctrine that self-denial of the body permits spiritual enlightenment. Asceticism and monasticism are two religious disciplines designed to de-emphasize the pleasures of the world so the practitioner can concentrate on the spiritual life.     aspheterism
	Denial of the right to private property. The philosophy adopted by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey for an egalitarian community called Pantisocracy..     atheism
	Belief that there is no God  Rather, it is the absence or rejection of the belief that deities exist.    atomism
	Belief that the universe consists of small indivisible particles. Ancient atomists theorized that nature consists of two fundamental principles: atom and void.    autosoterism
	Belief that one can obtain salvation through oneself     autotheism
	Belief that one is God incarnate or that one is Christ. A belief that the perfected soul and God are indistinguishably one.     bitheism
	Belief in two gods     bonism
	Doctrine that the world is good but not perfect. An old religion of Tibet, Bön doctrine was a dualistic theism, teaching that the creation of the world was brought about by coexistent good and evil principles.     bullionism
	Belief in the importance of metallic currency in economics. It defines wealth by the amount of precious metals owned.    capitalism
	Doctrine that private ownership and free markets should govern economies. Ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit will lead to public welfare.     Causalism
	The belief that chance governs all things.The philosophical view that the universe, its creation and development is solely based on randomness. The concept can be traced back to Epicurus
	Causalism holds behavior and actions to be the result of previous mental states, such as beliefs, desires, or intentions, rather than from a present conscious will guiding one's actions. catabaptism Belief in the wrongness of infant baptism    catastrophism
	Belief in rapid geological and biological change. Theory that the Earth has been affected in the past by sudden, short-lived, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope, in contrast to uniformitarianism (sometimes described as gradualism), in which changes are slow and incremental.     collectivism
	Doctrine of communal control of means of production. Gives importance to the moral stance, political philosophy, ideology, or social outlook that emphasizes the significance of groups—their identities, goals, rights, and outcomes.     collegialism
	Theory that church is independent from the state.  This in fact holds that the church, according to natural law, is an association (Lat. collegium) comparable to any other which ought to be autonomous in the regulation of its internal matters while subject to the state in the regulation of its external matters.    communism
	Theory of classless society in which individuals cannot own property     conceptualism
	Theory that universal truths exist as mental concepts. . In philosophy, it is a doctrine, intermediate between nominalism and realism, that universals exist only within the mind and have no external or substantial reality. Also called mentalism. In Art, it is a school of abstract art or an artistic doctrine that is concerned with the intellectual engagement of the viewer through conveyance of an idea and negation of the importance of the art object itself.     conservatism
	Belief in maintaining political and social traditions. A political and social philosophy promotes retaining traditional social institutions in the context of culture and civilization.     constructivism
	Belief that knowledge and reality do not have an objective value. Constructivism as a paradigm or worldview posits that learning is an active, constructive process. The learner is an information constructor. People actively construct or create their own subjective representations of objective reality. cosmism
	Belief that the cosmos is a self-existing whole and migration of man into space is inevitable. “The Earth is the Cradle of the Mind—but one cannot eternally live in a cradle.”    cosmotheism
	The belief that identifies God with the cosmos. It asserts that "all is within God and God is within all."    deism
	Belief in God but rejection of religion
	determinism   Doctrine that events are predetermined by preceding events or laws. This theory holds that the universe is utterly rational because complete knowledge of any given situation assures that unerring knowledge of its future is also possible.     diphysitism
	Belief in the dual nature of Christ, the human and the divine, existing together.    ditheism
	Belief in two equal gods, one good and one evil. It is a form of dualism which holds that the universe is comprised of dualities:  good and bad, light and darkness, body and mind, etc., which violates the biblical teaching that only one God exists.    ditheletism
	Doctrine that Christ had two wills, one divine and one human.    dualism
	Doctrine that the universe is controlled by one good and one evil force (In religion) two supreme opposed powers or gods, or sets of divine or demonic beings, that caused the world to exist.    egalitarianism
	Belief that humans ought to be equal in rights and privileges, a trend of thought that favors equality for all people.[    egoism
	Doctrine that the pursuit of self-interest is the highest good as opposed to altruism.     egotheism
	Identification of oneself with God, the view that the idea of God is nothing more than a conception of the self.     eidolism
	Belief in ghosts, etymology difficult to trace, but typically attributed to the Greek eidolon (“image, apparition, phantom, ghost”)     emotivism
	Theory that moral statements are inherently biased, that is, ethical sentences do not express propositions but emotional attitudes.     empiricism
	Doctrine that the experience of the senses is the only source of knowledge, and that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.     entryism
	Doctrine of joining a group to change its policies. Some groups encourage its members or supporters to join another, usually larger, organization in an attempt to expand influence and expand their ideas and program.     epiphenomenalism
	Doctrine that mental processes are epiphenomena of brain activity, which holds that physical events (sense organs, neural impulses, and muscle contractions) are causal with respect to mental events (thought, consciousness, and cognition).     eternalism
	The belief that matter has existed eternally and, takes the view that all points in time are equally "real", as opposed to the present idea that only the present is real.     eudaemonism
	Ethical belief that happiness equals morality. A self-realization theory that makes happiness or personal well-being the chief good for man. The Greek word eudaimonia means literally “the state of having a good indwelling spirit, a good genius”;     euhemerism
	Explanation of mythology, an approach to the interpretation of mythology in which mythological accounts are presumed to have originated from real historical events or personages.     existentialism
	Doctrine of individual human responsibility in an unfathomable universe. The belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual, that ones existence comes before ones essence.     experientialism
	Doctrine that knowledge comes from experience. Formulated by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson and its book Metaphors We Live By.    fallibilism
	The doctrine that empirical knowledge is uncertain. The philosophical principle that human beings could be wrong about their beliefs, expectations, or their understanding of the world.    fatalism
	Doctrine that events are fixed and humans are powerless. That we are powerless to do anything other than what we actually do.     fideism
	Doctrine that knowledge depends on faith over reason. The view that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at particular truths     finalism
	Belief that an end has or can be reached, the belief that all events are determined by their purposes or goals.     fortuitism
	Belief in evolution by chance variation in natural events rather than absolute determinism.    functionalism
	Doctrine emphasising utility and function, which says that mental states are identified by what they do rather than by what they are made of.    geocentrism
	Belief that Earth is the centre of the universe     gnosticism
	Belief that freedom derives solely from knowledge. The knowledge of transcendence arrived at by way of interior, intuitive means. Gnosticism thus rests on personal religious experience,     gradualism
	Belief that things proceed by degrees. Gradualism and punctuated equilibrium are two ways in which the evolution of a species can occur.    gymnobiblism
	Belief that the Bible can be presented to unlearned without commentary. (was condemned by the Catholic Church)     hedonism
	Belief that pleasure is the highest good     henism
	Doctrine that there is only one kind of existence     henotheism
	Belief in one tribal god, but not as the only god. Hence it refers to a middle position between unlimited polytheism and exclusive monotheism.     historicism
	Belief that all phenomena are historically determined, and it places great importance on cautious, rigorous, and contextualized interpretation of information; or relativist, because it rejects notions of universal, fundamental and immutable interpretations.    holism
	Doctrine that parts of any thing must be understood in relation to the whole. This often includes the view that systems function as wholes and that their functioning cannot be fully understood solely in terms of their component parts.[     holobaptism
	Belief in baptism with total immersion in water     humanism
	Belief that human interests and mind are paramount, rather than myths, legends and other theological elements.     humanitarianism
	Doctrine that the highest moral obligation is to improve human welfare, a moral of kindness, benevolence, and sympathy extended to all human beings.    hylicism
	The philosophy that the only thing that can be proven to exist is matter and that everything, including consciousness, is as a result of interaction with material things. Also called materialism    hylomorphism
	Belief that matter is cause of the universe. A philosophical theory developed by Aristotle, which conceives being (ousia) as a compound of matter and form.     hylopathism
	Belief in ability of matter to affect the spiritual world. It is the belief that some or all matter is sentient or that properties of matter in general give rise to subjective experience. It is opposed to the assertion that consciousness results exclusively from properties of specific types of matter, e.g. brain tissue.     hylotheism
	Belief that the universe is purely material. Matter is God, or that there is no God except matter and the Universe. It is distinct from materialism in that the hylotheist sees the material Universe as God and distinguished from other forms of theism in that the hylotheist does not believe in a supernatural or dualistic Universe.    hylozoism
	Doctrine that all matter is endowed with life. The concept dates back at least as far as the Milesian school of pre-Socratic philosophers.    idealism
	Belief that our experiences of the world consist of ideas, asserting that all entities are composed of mind or spirit.    identism
	Doctrine that objective and subjective, or matter and mind, are identical.     ignorantism
	Doctrine that ignorance is a favourable thing     illuminism
	Belief in an inward spiritual light, a special personal enlightenment.     illusionism
	A technique of using pictorial methods in order to deceive the eye, or, in Philosophy. a theory or doctrine that the material world is an illusion.    imagism
	Doctrine of use of precise images with unrestricted subject, clarity of expression through the use of precise visual images.     immanentism
	Belief in an immanent or permanent god Any of various religious theories postulating that a deity, mind, or spirit is immanent in the world and in the individual.    immaterialism
	The doctrine that there is no material substance. Berkeley's philosophical view, often described as an argument for "immaterialism", by which is meant a denial of the existence of matter (or more precisely, material substance.)    immoralism
	Rejection of morality, rather, an indifference toward conventional morality.    indifferentism
	The belief that all religions are equally valid. In Roman Catholic faith, is the belief held by some that no one religion or philosophy is superior to another    individualism
	Belief that individual interests and rights are paramount     instrumentalism
	Doctrine that ideas are instruments of action. A view in Epistemology and Philosophy of Science, advanced by the American philosopher John Dewey, that concepts and theories are merely useful instruments, and their worth is measured not by whether the concepts and theories are true or false (Instrumentalism denies that theories are truth-evaluable), or whether they correctly depict reality, but by how effective they are in explaining and predicting phenomena.     intellectualism
	Belief that all knowledge is derived from reason. This regards the intellect as superior to the will, and that the intellect is the basic factor, both in the universe and in human conduct.     interactionism
	Belief that mind and body act on each other. A theoretical perspective that derives social processes (such as conflict, cooperation, identity formation) from human interaction. It is the study of how individuals act within society.     introspectionism
	Doctrine that knowledge of mind must derive from introspection     intuitionism
	Belief that the perception of truth is by intuition     irreligionism
	System of belief that is hostile to religions     kathenotheism
	Polytheism in which each god is considered single and supreme. A more specific form of henotheism, refers to the worship of a succession of supreme gods "one at a time", from the Greek kath' hena "one by one"     kenotism
	Doctrine that Christ rid himself of divinity in becoming human     laicism
	Doctrine of opposition to clergy and priests. The absence of religious involvement in government affairs, especially the prohibition of religious influence in the determination of state policies; it is also the absence of government involvement in religious affairs, especially the prohibition of government influence in the determination of religion.    latitudinarianism
	Doctrine of broad liberality in religious belief and conduct. A group of 17th-century English theologians believed in conforming to official Church of England practices but felt that matters of doctrine, liturgical practice, and ecclesiastical organization were of relatively little importance.     laxism
	Belief that an unlikely opinion may be safely followed. Given a choice, follow the liberal course.    legalism
	Belief that salvation depends on strict adherence to the law, ie., the act of putting law above gospel. In early China, was a philosophical belief that human beings are more inclined to do wrong than right because they are motivated entirely by self interest. In Western Philosophy, it is an approach to the analysis of legal questions characterized by abstract logical reasoning focusing on the applicable legal text, such as a constitution, legislation, or case law, rather than on the social, economic, or political context. Legalism has occurred both in civil and common law traditions.    liberalism
	Doctrine of social change and tolerance, is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality.    libertarianism
	Doctrine that personal liberty is the highest. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and freedom of choice, emphasizing political freedom, voluntary association, and the primacy of individual judgment.    malism
	The belief that the world is evil     materialism
	Belief that matter is the only extant substance     mechanism
	Belief that life is explainable by mechanical forces     meliorism
	The belief the world tends to become better It holds that humans can, through their interference with processes that would otherwise be natural, produce an outcome which is an improvement over the aforementioned natural one    mentalism
	Belief that the world can be explained as aspect of the mind     messianism
	Belief in a single messiah or saviour     millenarianism
	Belief that an ideal society will be produced in the near future     modalism
	Belief in unity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit     monadism
	Theory that there exist ultimate units of being     monergism
	Theory that the Holy Spirit alone can act     monism
	Belief that all things can be placed in one category     monophysitism
	Belief that Christ was primarily divine but in human form     monopsychism
	Belief that individuals have a single eternal soul     monotheism
	Belief in only one God     monotheletism
	Belief that Christ had only one will     mortalism
	Belief that the soul is mortal     mutualism
	Belief in mutual dependence of society and the individual     nativism
	Belief that the mind possesses inborn thoughts     naturalism
	Belief that the world can be explained in terms of natural forces    necessarianism
	Theory that actions are determined by prior history; fatalism     neonomianism
	Theory that the gospel abrogates earlier moral codes     neovitalism
	Theory that total material explanation is impossible     nihilism
	Denial of all reality; extreme scepticism     nominalism
	Doctrine that naming of things defines reality     nomism
	View that moral conduct consists in observance of laws     noumenalism
	Belief in existence of noumena     nullibilism
	Denial that the soul exists in space     numenism
	Belief in local deities or spirits     objectivism
	Doctrine that all reality is objective     omnism
	Belief in all religions     optimism
	Doctrine that we live in the best of all possible worlds     organicism
	Conception of life or society as an organism     paedobaptism
	Doctrine of infant baptism   panaesthetism
	Theory that consciousness may inhere generally in matter     pancosmism
	Theory that the material universe is all that exists    panegoism
	Solipsism, a form of scepticism     panentheism
	Belief that world is part but not all of God’s being     panpsychism
	Theory that all nature has a psychic side     pansexualism
	Theory that all thought derived from sexual instinct     panspermatism
	Belief in origin of life from extraterrestrial germs     pantheism
	Belief that the universe is God; belief in many gods     panzoism
	Belief that humans and animals share vital life energy     parallelism
	Belief that matter and mind don’t interact but relate     pejorism
	Severe pessimism, The theory that the world is deteriorating or growing worse.     perfectibilism
	Doctrine that humans capable of becoming perfect     perfectionism
	Doctrine that moral perfection constitutes the highest value     personalism
	Doctrine that humans possess spiritual freedom     pessimism
	Doctrine that the universe is essentially evil     phenomenalism
	Belief that phenomena are the only realities     physicalism
	Belief that all phenomena reducible to verifiable assertions     physitheism
	Attribution of physical form and attributes to deities     pluralism
	Belief that reality consists of several kinds or entities     polytheism
	Belief in multiple deities     positivism
	Doctrine that that which is not observable is not knowable     pragmatism
	Doctrine emphasizing practical value of philosophy     predestinarianism
	Belief that what ever is to happen is already fixed     prescriptivism
	Belief that moral edicts are merely orders with no truth value     primitivism
	Doctrine that a simple and natural life is morally best     privatism
	Attitude of avoiding involvement in outside interests     probabiliorism
	Belief that when in doubt one must choose most likely answer     probabilism
	Belief that knowledge is always probable but never absolute     psilanthropism
	Denial of Christ's divinity     psychism
	Belief in universal soul     psychomorphism
	Doctrine that inanimate objects have human mentality     psychopannychism
	Belief souls sleep from death to resurrection     psychotheism
	Doctrine that God is a purely spiritual entity     pyrrhonism
	Total or radical skepticism    quietism
	Doctrine of enlightenment through mental tranquility     racism
	Belief that race is the primary determinant of human capacities     rationalism
	Belief that reason is the fundamental source of knowledge     realism
	Doctrine that objects of cognition are real     reductionism
	Belief that complex phenomena are reducible to simple ones     regalism
	Doctrine of the monarch's supremacy in church affairs     representationalism
	Doctrine that ideas rather than external objects are basis of knowledge     republicanism
	Belief that a republic is the best form of government     resistentialism
	Humorous theory that inanimate objects display malice towards humans, i.e., "spiteful behavior manifested by inanimate objects”     romanticism
	Belief in sentimental feeling in artistic expression     sacerdotalism
	Belief that priests are necessary mediators between God and mankind     sacramentarianism
	Belief that sacraments have unusual properties     scientism
	Belief that the methods of science are universally applicable     self-determinism
	Doctrine that the actions of a self are determined by itself     sensationalism
	Belief that ideas originate solely in sensation     sexism
	Belief in systematic inequalities between the sexes     siderism
	Belief that the stars influence human affairs     skepticism
	Doctrine that true knowledge is always uncertain. Often directed at domains, such as morality (moral skepticism), religion (skepticism about the existence of God), or the nature of knowledge (skepticism of knowledge).[     socialism
	Doctrine of centralized state control of wealth and property     solarism
	Excessive use of solar myths in explaining mythology     solifidianism
	Doctrine that faith alone will ensure salvation     solipsism
	Theory that self-existence is the only certainty. Theory, which holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure.    somatism
	Materialism, especially the belief that emotional and mental disorders are of physical origin and caused by bodily lesions.     spatialism
	Doctrine that matter has only spatial, temporal and causal properties     spiritualism
	Belief that nothing is real except the soul or spirit     stercoranism
	Belief that the consecrated Eucharist is digested and evacuated     stoicism
	Belief in indifference to pleasure or pain     subjectivism
	Doctrine that all knowledge is subjective     substantialism
	Belief that there is a real existence underlying phenomena     syndicalism
	Doctrine of direct worker control of capital     synergism
	Belief that human will and divine spirit cooperate in salvation. In general, may be defined as two or more agents working together to produce a result not obtainable by any of the agents independently.     terminism
	Doctrine that there is a time limit for repentance     thanatism
	Belief that the soul dies with the body. Term employed by Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919) to express his doctrine of the mortality of annihilation of the human soul, the contrary of athanatism, immortality.    theism
	Belief in the existence of God without special revelation     theocentrism
	Belief that God is central fact of existence     theopantism
	Belief that God is the only reality     theopsychism
	Belief that the soul is of a divine nature     thnetopsychism
	Belief that the soul dies with the body, to be reborn on day of judgement     titanism
	Spirit of revolt or defiance against social conventions.     tolerationism
	Doctrine of toleration of religious differences. Locke, Spinoza etc are the proponents.    totemism
	Belief that a group has a special kinship with an object or animal     transcendentalism
	Theory that emphasizes that which transcends perception, which is very simple idea. People, men and women equally, have knowledge about themselves and the world around them that "transcends" or goes beyond what they can see, hear, taste, touch or feel.     transmigrationism
	Belief that soul passes into other body at death     trialism
	Doctrine that humans have three separate essences (body, soul, spirit). 1) In philosophy was introduced by John Cottingham as an alternative interpretation of the mind-body dualism of Rene Descartes. Trialism keeps the two substances of mind and body, but introduces a third attribute, sensation, belonging to the union of mind and body. This allows animals, which do not have thought, to be regarded as having sensation and not as being mere automata.2) Christian trialism is the doctrine that humans have three separate essences (body, soul, spirit),    tritheism
	Belief that the members of the Trinity are separate gods.     triumphalism
	Belief in the superiority of one particular religious creed. The attitude or belief that a particular doctrine, religion, culture, or social system is superior to and should triumph over all others.    tuism
	Theory that individuals have a second or other self. Thus all thought is addressed to a second person, or to one's future self as to a second person.    tutiorism
	Doctrine that one should take the safer moral course     tychism
	Theory that accepts role of pure chance, a thesis proposed by the American philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce.    ubiquitarianism
	Belief that Christ is everywhere. Protestant sect was started at the Lutheran synod of Stuttgart, 19 December 1559, by Johannes Brenz, a Swabian    undulationism
	Theory that light consists of waves     universalism
	Belief in universal salvation, that all people will eventually be saved.    utilitarianism
	Belief that utility of actions determines moral value. The ethical theory was proposed by Jeremy Bentham and James Mill that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.     vitalism
	The doctrine that there is a vital force behind life, and that cannot be explained entirely as physical and chemical phenomena.    voluntarism
	Belief that the will dominates the intellect, the fundamental principle of the individual or of the universe.   zoism
	Doctrine that life originates from a single vital principle, or, reverence for animal life or a belief in magical animal powers.     zoomorphism
	Conception of a god or man in animal form.     zootheism
	Attribution of divine qualities to animals. Philosophies and beliefs may be seriated in four stages: The first stage is hecastotheism; in this stage extranatural or mysterious potencies are imputed to objects both animate and inanimate. The second stage is zootheism; within it the powers of animate forms are exaggerated and amplified into the realm of the supernal, and certain animals are deified.